Question 1

Your weather routing service provides two route options across the North Pacific. Route A is 200nm shorter but shows a 60-foot (18m) swell. Route B adds 18 hours but avoids the swell. As Master, how do you decide?

Accepted Answer

WEATHER ROUTING DECISION — NORTH PACIFIC: MASTER's DECISION PROCESS: SOLAS V/34 responsibility rests with the MASTER — the weather routing service provides expert guidance but the master makes the decision. FACTORS FOR ASSESSMENT: (1) VESSEL CAPABILITY: what sea state can this vessel safely operate in? Check the vessel's sea state and wave height limitations (often specified in the Loading Manual or Operating Manual). 18m swells are EXTREME — almost any vessel should avoid these; (2) CARGO: is the cargo susceptible to heavy weather damage? Containers: lashing limits. Bulk cargoes: possible shifting. Liquid bulk: possible sloshing and structural stress; (3) CREW FATIGUE: Force 10+ conditions for extended periods cause extreme crew fatigue. This affects safety watchkeeping; (4) STRUCTURAL STRESS: 18m swells on a beam or bow sea create extreme structural loading. What is the vessel's classification society design sea state? Most vessels are designed to BV/LR 10-metre sea state as a practical operating limit; (5) FUEL AND TIME: Route A saves fuel and time — but at what safety cost?; (6) ETA IMPLICATIONS: 18 hours additional time on Route B. Is there a critical berth window, laycan, or commercial obligation?; MASTER's DECISION: 18m (60-foot) swells represent EXTREME sea conditions that pose structural risk to most vessels. The correct decision for most vessel types is Route B — the 18-hour addition is a VERY small penalty compared to structural damage, cargo damage, or crew injury. DOCUMENT: the decision and reasons in the log. NOTIFY DPA: the 18-hour delay has commercial implications. SOLAS V/34 — master's responsibility: the passage plan must be approved by the master and the master retains authority for route changes throughout the voyage. The weather routing service provides weather forecasts and route recommendations — but they cannot compel the master. If the master disagrees with the service's assessment — the master's judgement governs the vessel's routing. Weather routing service liability: weather routing services typically have a limitation of liability clause in their service agreements. If the master follows a routing service recommendation and the vessel is damaged in the forecast conditions — the routing service may have limited liability. The shipowner (and master) cannot shift responsibility to the service. 18m swells: for context, 18m (60 feet) is an extreme sea state. The Beaufort scale maximum (Force 12) corresponds to waves above 14m. Tropical cyclone generated seas can reach 18m. Most merchant vessel design sea states are specified for 10-12m maximum wave heights for sustained operations. Transiting 18m swells could result in structural damage, hatch cover failure, and loss of containers. Charterer route decision (option C): the charterer (under a time charter) directs the EMPLOYMENT of the vessel — not the safety and navigation. Routing through dangerous sea conditions is a navigation and safety decision made by the master, not the cargo owner. The charterer is told the decision and its commercial implications — they do not make the routing decision for the master.

Question 2

Your 180m bulk carrier is in Force 10 seas in the North Atlantic on a westbound Atlantic crossing. What are your strategic options and how do you decide?

Accepted Answer

FORCE 10 HEAVY WEATHER MANAGEMENT — STRATEGIC OPTIONS: FORCE 10 CONDITIONS: Beaufort 10 = 48-55 knots wind, seas 9-12m, very high waves with overhanging crests. For a 180m bulk carrier: (a) Green water on deck; (b) Risk of structural damage (hatch covers, mooring equipment); (c) Risk of cargo shift (particularly if bulk cargo has high moisture content); (d) Risk of parametric rolling (if heading or speed is near resonance frequency); STRATEGIC OPTIONS: (1) MAINTAIN COURSE — if the vessel can make safe headway, maintaining course at reduced speed may be appropriate. Rule: speed such that no excessive structural stress occurs. Fuel consumption penalty; (2) HEAVE-TO: bring the vessel to approximately 30-40° off the sea on the bow (head to sea, minimal headway). Most comfortable option for weathering out a storm. Significant time and fuel cost; (3) RUNNING BEFORE: stern to sea. Faster progress but: stern-on boarding seas risk; pooping risk; loss of rudder effectiveness in following seas (surf-riding, broaching risk); (4) AVOIDANCE — alter course to skirt around the storm. Use weather routing service data and ECMWF forecast to find the storm track and avoid it; MASTER's DECISION PROCESS: (1) ASSESS STORM TRACK: is it moving, and can you outrun or avoid it?; (2) VESSEL CAPABILITY: what is this vessel's seakeeping in these conditions?; (3) CARGO RISK: is the cargo susceptible to moisture or shifting?; (4) CREW CONDITION: fatigue level; (5) DESTINATION URGENCY: is there a berth window, laycan, tidal window that has commercial significance?; (6) NOTIFY DPA: commercial implications of significant deviation. Full speed in Force 10 (option B): maintaining full service speed in Force 10 conditions risks: (a) Excessive slamming (bow slamming in following steep seas); (b) Loss of propeller in following seas (RPM surge when propeller emerges); (c) Structural overstress on hatch covers, deck fittings; (d) Cargo damage. The correct principle is to reduce speed to what the vessel can safely sustain — which in Force 10 may be as low as 3-5 knots for safety. Running before the storm (option C): stern-on to following seas can cause: (a) Surf-riding — the vessel accelerates uncontrollably down a wave face, rudder loses effectiveness; (b) Broaching — a sudden involuntary turn athwart the sea; (c) Pooping — a following sea breaks over the stern. These are extremely dangerous. Running before the storm is appropriate only in certain vessel types and conditions — it is not universally the safest option. Weather routing authority (option D): the master bears responsibility for the safety of the vessel under SOLAS V/34 (passage planning). Weather routing services provide expert guidance — but they cannot compel the master to follow their recommendations. The master assesses the weather data and makes the decision. The weather routing service cannot be on the bridge to observe actual conditions. Parametric rolling — bulk carriers: certain vessel hull forms (bulkers, container ships) are susceptible to parametric rolling in specific sea states where the encounter frequency matches the natural roll period. The master must be aware of this and alter course or speed if the vessel exhibits parametric rolling characteristics.

Question 3

Your 300m tanker has a draught of 16.5m. You are transiting a channel where the charted depth is 19m but where dredging may have created uneven bottom. Discuss your UKC calculation and minimum clearance policy.

Accepted Answer

UKC CALCULATION — 300M TANKER IN SHALLOW CHANNEL: UKC COMPONENTS: Under-Keel Clearance = Charted Depth − Vessel Draught − Dynamic Allowances. STATIC CALCULATIONS: (1) Chart datum: the charted 19m is referenced to Chart Datum (Lowest Astronomical Tide). Current tidal height must be added; (2) Current draught: 16.5m; (3) Static clearance at chart datum: 19 - 16.5 = 2.5m; (4) During tidal rise: if tide = +1.5m: effective depth = 20.5m; clearance = 20.5 - 16.5 = 4.0m before dynamic allowances; DYNAMIC ALLOWANCES — THESE REDUCE THE EFFECTIVE UKC: (1) SQUAT: a vessel moving through water sinks below its static waterline due to: (a) Pressure distribution under hull; (b) Speed-dependent. For large vessels in shallow water (depth/draught ratio < 3): squat can be calculated using the Barras formula. At 10 knots in a depth/draught ratio of ~1.15 (19/16.5), squat for a 300m tanker may be 1.0-1.5m; (2) HEEL: when turning or in wind — the vessel lists, increasing draught at the lower side. For 1° heel at 32m breadth: heel squat ≈ 0.28m; (3) WAVE RESPONSE: in wave action, the vessel heaves and pitches — the lowest point may be deeper than the static waterline; (4) CHART ACCURACY: the stated 19m may not reflect uneven dredging. A safety margin of 0.5-1.0m should be added; MINIMUM SAFE CLEARANCE POLICY: many companies specify 10-15% of draught = 1.65-2.5m after all dynamic deductions. At 10 knots with 1.5m squat and heel — the available clearance BEFORE wave response and chart inaccuracy is: 2.5m (static) - 1.5m (squat) - 0.28m (heel) = 0.72m. THIS IS INSUFFICIENT for a 300m tanker. REDUCE SPEED to reduce squat. Static UKC is a starting point only: option B correctly identifies static UKC as 2.5m — but fails to account for any dynamic deductions. For a VLCC/large tanker in a shallow channel, squat alone can be 1.0-2.0m at normal transit speeds. The net dynamic UKC after squat, heel, and wave response may be less than 0.5m — critically insufficient. Pilot responsibility (option C): the pilot advises on local conditions and may have experience-based knowledge of the channel. However, the master retains ultimate responsibility for the vessel's safety (MSA 1995 S.22 and SOLAS V/34). The master should calculate UKC independently and compare with the pilot's recommendations. If the master's calculation shows inadequate UKC — they must raise this with the pilot. Speed and squat relationship: option D is dangerously wrong. Increasing speed INCREASES squat (squat is proportional to approximately speed squared). The correct response is to REDUCE SPEED to reduce squat. Many VLCCs transit shallow ports at very slow speed (4-6 knots) specifically to manage squat. Company UKC policy: most major oil company and bulk carrier operators have formal UKC policies specifying minimum clearances after all dynamic deductions. These are typically: (a) At sea: 10% of draught minimum (but often 1.5-2.0m absolute minimum); (b) In restricted waters: 15% of draught after deductions. The Barras formula: B2/Cb × V²/Lpp gives a squat estimate. This is the standard formula used by many harbour masters and pilots. Masters of large vessels should be familiar with its application.